Film and Tradition: Female Representation in Northern Ghanaian Cinema

This paper critically examines the representation of women in Northern Ghanaian films, focusing on the Dagbang cultural context. Using a qualitative approach involving in-depth interviews with 15 filmmakers and analysis of four selected films, the research reveals that many films reinforce patriarchal norms by depicting women in subordinate roles. However, a key finding indicates that these portrayals are not intended to degrade women, but rather to highlight how Dagbang culture views women and female children. As such, these films serve as advocacy tools aligned with SDGs 5 and 16, while also offering critical reflections on cultural attitudes. In this paper, we argue that development in the Dagbong cultural setting can only be achieved when there is inclusivity of all members of the community, including women. The study underscores the importance of fostering more equitable portrayals of women in cinema to promote gender equality and
development.

Introduction

In Northern Ghana, where traditional gender roles and patriarchal norms prevail, the representation of women in popular culture holds significant influence. Films, as one of the most popular forms of entertainment in the region, play a crucial role in shaping attitudes towards gender and influencing social norms. However, the portrayal of women in these films has garnered attention due to the negative stereotypes perpetuated by filmmakers. Women are often depicted as dependent on men, liabilities to society, or as witches. Even when portrayed as responsible or affluent, these achievements are frequently attributed to male influence or other external factors rather than their own efforts. For instance, in the films entitled “Sonya Chugu” (Iddrisu, 2020) and “Pakpang” (Iddrisu, 2022), the lead female characters are depicted as witches with extraordinary powers that surpass those of their male counterparts. Further, in “Pagtug” [The Tough Woman] (Yakubu, n.d.), the lead actress is portrayed as a disobedient wife who dominates her household, overriding both her husband and other wives, ultimately impacting negatively on the well-being of her children. Similarly, in “Garkating-dam” [Destructive Movement] (Iddrisu, 2010), and “Baby-Lukaya” (Ali, 2020) have similarly relegated women to inferior roles, reinforcing their subordination in these narratives.

Northern Ghana, known for its rich cultural heritage and strong traditional norms, particularly within the Dagbamba ethnic group, showcases its unique cultural and linguistic identity through its cinematic productions. Films in this region, often produced in the Dagbanli language, tend to portray women negatively, reflecting and reinforcing societal attitudes towards gender (Acquaye, 2022). These films serve as powerful tools for storytelling, cultural dissemination, and education, influencing public perceptions and sparking dialogue on key issues. A film is a visual narrative or motion picture that is usually captured and displayed on a screen or other forms of media (Bordwell & Thompson, 2010). By comparing Northern Ghanaian films to other African films, such as The Wedding Party by Adetiba (2016), which highlights economic empowerment and entrepreneurship (SDG 8), Timbuktu by Sissako (2014), which addresses cultural preservation and human rights (SDG 16), and The Girl Who Would Be Queen by Tajdin (2017), which focuses on education and gender equality (SDG 4), this analysis underscores the significant role of cinema in shaping societal values and contributing to development, particularly in relation to the Sustainable Development Goals [SDGs] (Sdg, 2019).

In the Northern Region of Ghana, the film industry operates differently from more formalized setups found in other areas. Here, key players include producers, directors, actors, and the audience, with a unique focus on community-driven processes. Unlike regions where actors are selected through auditions and assigned roles by production companies backed by investors, Northern Ghana’s film production is more localized. Producers and directors often directly engage with actors, sometimes bypassing formal audition processes. These producers, who also handle much of the film’s financing, rely on local vendors and market women for distribution, rather than professional organizers. This grassroots distribution network focuses on marketing and selling films within the community, primarily through local vendors instead of larger exhibitors like movie theaters or streaming services. Consequently, films are shared with audiences through informal, community-based channels, reflecting a deeply embedded cultural practice. In the film industry on the global scale, Performers are typically chosen through auditions and assigned roles by production companies, which are often backed by investors to finance the films (McMahon, 2022). Distributors handle marketing and sales to exhibitors like movie theaters or streaming platforms, who then present the films to audiences through various formats, including cinemas or digital platforms (Crane, 2014).

Studies on Northern Ghanaian cinema show that films often portray women in restrictive and negative roles, reinforcing traditional gender norms. Ofori-Birikorang and Donkor (2014) and Osei Owusu (2022) found that women are depicted as subservient and controlled, with female sexuality regulated by men. Acquaye (2022) noted viewer dissatisfaction with these portrayals and a desire for films to challenge traditional gender roles. Mohammed (2022) examined Dagbanli films but did not explore the developmental impact of these portrayals. In this context, this study aims to investigate the factors influencing the portrayal of women in Northern Ghanaian films and their impact on gender dynamics and societal progress in the region.

Literature Review

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Theoretical Framework

This study employs two primary theoretical frameworks: African Feminist theory and Auteur theory. These frameworks offer complementary perspectives on the representation of women in Northern Ghanaian films and provide a foundation for understanding their broader implications.

African Feminist Theory

African Feminist theory emerged to address the limitations of Western feminist perspectives by emphasizing the need to consider African cultural, social, and political contexts (Dosekun, 2021). It explores how gender roles and norms are shaped by patriarchal structures within African societies, assuming that these structures both influence and are reinforced by various cultural practices (Mama, 2002). However, African Feminist theory has been critiqued for potentially generalizing the experiences of African women and neglecting the diverse and intersecting aspects of identity such as class and ethnicity (Mohanty, 2020). Additionally, it may not fully address the complexities of global feminist discourse (Bisschoff & Van de Peer, 2019). In this study, African Feminist theory provides a critical lens to examine how Northern Ghanaian films depict women, often reinforcing patriarchal norms. It will help analyze whether these portrayals depict women as subservient or constrained by traditional roles, thus affecting their perceived agency and societal contributions. The theory will guide the investigation into how these representations perpetuate or challenge gender inequalities within the Dagbang cultural context.

Auteur Theory

Auteur theory, popularized by French film critics in the 1950s, posits that a film reflects the personal vision and creative control of its director (Sarris, 2008). This theory assumes that the director’s unique artistic voice significantly shapes the film’s narrative and character portrayals (Truffaut, 2008). Despite its insights, Auteur theory has faced criticism for emphasizing the director’s role while potentially overlooking the contributions of other key film collaborators (Ledger & Ledger, 2019). It may also underplay the collaborative and industry-wide aspects of filmmaking that influence the final portrayal of characters (Gray, 2020). In this study, Auteur theory will be used to explore how the personal perspectives and cultural influences of filmmakers affect the depiction of women in Northern Ghanaian films. This approach will help assess how directors’ artistic choices contribute to the representation of women as either empowered subjects or stereotypical figures. By examining the impact of directorial vision on gender portrayals, the research aims to uncover how filmmakers’ individual viewpoints and cultural backgrounds shape the narratives and characterizations of women. This analysis will reveal how directors’ creative decisions reinforce or challenge prevailing gender norms and stereotypes within the Dagbang cultural context. Together, these theoretical frameworks will facilitate a comprehensive analysis of gender representation in Northern Ghanaian films and offer insights into the implications of these portrayals for gender relations and societal development in the region.

Brief Background on Dagbang Culture

Dagbang, refers to the kingdom founded by the Dagbamba/Dagomba ethnic group in the northern region of Ghana. This kingdom is characterized by strong cultural values, which have been syncretised with Islamic religious practices (Staniland, 1975). The primary language spoken by the indigenes is Dagbani, although the kingdom also encompasses minority ethnic groups, with Dagbani remaining dominant among the local dialects. The origins of the Dagbamba people can be traced back to Tohazie, known as the Red Hunter, who originally hailed from Gombe State in Northern Nigeria (Plockey & Ahamed, 2016; Staniland, 1975; Weiss, 2008). Dagbang shares borders with neighboring communities such as Gonja land to the south and west, Mamprugu to the north, and Togo to the east. The cultural fabric of Dagbang is intricately woven with Islamic tenets, shaping various aspects of marital life and parenting (Abukariet al., 2022; Gbambuet al., 2023; Oppong, 1973), as well as perceptions about the status of women. This influence extends to their anthropogenic approach to the family system and child upbringing, which is characterized by strictness.

Moral values, aligned with both Islamic traditions and humanity, are instilled in children, even in cases where families may not entirely adhere to Islamic teachings. As part of an endeavor to uphold these moral standards, every child in the Islamic homes undergoes education at an Islamic school known as ‘Makarrata,’ which contributes significantly to their socialization. The education process differs for male and female children. Males are educated to assume roles as responsible men, entrusted with the welfare of their families while upholding elevated moral standards. Their involvement in household chores, such as farming, weeding, and labor-intensive activities, contributes to the family’s sustenance. In contrast, female children are groomed for their roles as future wives and mothers, receiving training in tasks like cooking, cleaning, collecting firewood, and other continuous responsibilities. From the Dagbang cultural perspective, men are perceived as breadwinners and ultimate authorities within the familial structure, shouldering the responsibility of providing for their households and commanding obedience. Conversely, women are viewed as wives and mothers, primarily tasked with obeying their husbands’ directives and nurturing their offspring¹ 1This data was collected spanning the years 2016 to 2023.. These deeply entrenched cultural practices contribute to the traditional setup of Dagbang society, wherein a gender transformative process has delineated distinct roles and responsibilities for men and women (Abdul-Hamid, 2017). Consequently, women assume a subordinate position to their male counterparts, occupying a lower stratum within the societal hierarchy. There is a prevalent belief within the Dagbang culture that women perceive themselves as subordinate. This notion is deeply ingrained in Dagbang’s historical context and prevalent within its folklore, where women who bear female children often fail to recognize their worth or fortune. Despite evidence to the contrary, this perception persists among the Dagbamba community. Remarkably, the situation has been reversed in some cases, as women who have exclusively raised female children have found their offspring to be advantageous in adulthood compared to those who have male children²2The field study, conducted from March 1 to June 5, 2023, investigated perceptions of female inferiority within the Dagbamba ethnic group. It focused on how women are valued based on the gender of their children, revealing a societal preference for women who bear sons over those with daughters. Interviews were carried out across the Dagbang kingdom with chiefs, chief bards, and community members to assess these attitudes and gain deeper insights into the issue..

Concept of Film and Film Production Process

Film can be seen from sociocultural perspective and realm of semiotics. From a sociocultural perspective, film emerges as a mirror reflecting societal norms, values, and conflicts. It serves as a tool for communication and cultural representation, enabling the exploration of identity, ideology, and historical consciousness (Chandler, 2022; Dianiya, 2020; Wildfeuer, 2014). Scholars like Wildfeuer (2014) and Dianiya (2020) have delved into how film contributes to shaping collective perceptions and reinforcing or challenging power dynamics. In the realm of semiotics, film is analyzed as a system of signs and symbols, where meaning is constructed through visual and auditory cues (Chandler, 2022). Chandler have examined the intricate language of film and its ability to convey emotions, ideas, and cultural motifs. This semiotic approach underscores the nuanced ways in which film communicates and resonates with audiences.

Film production involves multiple stages including development stage, pre-production, production, post-production, and distribution (Bihiset al., 2018; Greenet al., 2014). The development stage includes script development by the screenwriter and collaboration with the producer. During the development stage, ideas for the film are refined to determine the subsequent steps in the production process. Pre-production involves logistical planning, casting, location scouting, storyboarding, and crew hiring (Alfarraji & Al Smadi, 2023). This stage involves, research is conducted on the subject matter or theme to determine the narrative approach and the logistical and technical requirements for the production. Production captures the scenes with the director and cinematographer with camera and other recording logistics (Brown, 2016). The director utilizes various techniques to effectively portray performers as the intended characters to the audience. Post-production includes editing, applying special effects, sound design, and music, in collaboration with the director and post-production team (Ramamurthy, 2021). This stage marks the finalization of the film into a complete product or project. Subsequently, distribution serves as the concluding stage in the production process. The distribution encompasses marketing, trailers, and distribution deals to reach audiences (Elsaesser & Hagener, 2015). According to Elsaesser and Hagener (2015), the intricate nature of the film production process highlights its importance as a collaborative and sequential endeavor for participants in the industry.

The Concept of Motif in Film

The concept of a motif, originating from various artistic disciplines such as literature, visual arts, and music (Lange, 2021), is defined as a recurring theme, symbol, or visual element that holds symbolic or thematic significance (Duncan, 2015). In film, motifs play a crucial role by reinforcing central themes, contributing to character development, and enhancing narrative cohesion (McWilliam & Ryan, 2021). They provide subtext and intellectual engagement, foreshadow future events, and add depth to storytelling. Additionally, motifs related to protagonists can reveal their emotional evolution and growth throughout the film (Duncan, 2015). Overall, motifs are essential in shaping the films symbolic language, emotional impact, and overall coherence.

Concept of Characterization in Film

Characterization in film involves the techniques used to bring characters to life and make them relatable, as explored by Melkiet al. (2019) through dialogue, actions, and visual cues. Duncan (2015), highlighted the importance of character arcs, noting that dynamic characters enhance emotional impact and thematic depth. Cohn (2019), examined the psychological aspects, emphasizing how character motivations and conflicts foster empathy. Taylor (2024), focused on how casting and actor performances shape audience perceptions. Effective characterization is essential for creating engaging and emotionally impactful films.

Representation and Gender/Female Representation in Film

Representation in film involves portraying different groups, cultures, or identities, impacting viewers’ attitudes and beliefs (Holtzman & Sharpe, 2014). Techniques such as casting, storytelling, and cinematography are crucial. Accurate casting, as noted by Zenor (2014), ensures authenticity, while storytelling can challenge stereotypes. Cinematography, through framing and lighting, contributes to the representation of identities (Hoser, 2018). Despite these techniques, improving representation in the northern film industry remains an ongoing challenge.

Female representation in film has faced criticism for often perpetuating stereotypes and limiting roles. To address this, efforts include casting women in lead or traditionally male-dominated roles, such as in the 2017 film “Wonder Woman” (Muhammad, 2024). Storytelling techniques aim to create multi-dimensional female characters, as demonstrated in Greta Gerwig’s 2019 film “Little Women” (Fleming, 2018). Cinematography, influenced by Laura Mulvey’s “Male Gaze” theory, affects how women are perceived on screen through framing and camera angles (King, 2020). These approaches seek to challenge gender norms and enhance diversity in female representation.

In African cinema, female representation is shaped by cultural, societal, and economic factors, with women historically marginalized in various domains (Osei Owusu, 2022; Ukadike, 2023). The rise of female filmmakers, such as Genevieve Nnaji with her 2018 film “Lionheart” (Bisschoff & Van de Peer, 2019; Okibe, 2024), is beginning to shift this narrative. Films like “Rafiki” by Wanuri Kahiu in 2019 challenge traditional gender norms by depicting same-sex relationships (Ligaga, 2020; MacArthur, 2019). However, significant challenges remain due to persistent patriarchal attitudes and limited resources for female filmmakers (Olaniyi, 2019).

Negative female representation in film globally and in Africa reinforces gender stereotypes and perpetuates gender inequality. Women are often underrepresented, sexualized, objectified, or portrayed in stereotypical ways (Owusu & Kwansah-Aidoo, 2021; Santoniccoloet al., 2023). This can negatively affect women’s self-esteem, aspirations, and career choices, as shown by Lind (2023), who found that exposure to sexualized portrayals in media led to lower academic and career aspirations among adolescent girls. Furthermore, limited and negative representations restrict storytelling diversity and perspectives in the film industry.

Stakeholders in Northern Ghanaian Film Industry

The stakeholders in Northern Ghanaian film industry include producers, performers, local distributors, audiences, producers and directors guilts or associations. Producers face budget limitations, relying on personal savings, assistance from family and friends, or small loans. Distributors and exhibitors operate locally, distributing and screening films in various venues (Acquaye, 2022; Omoera & Okwuowulu, 2021). The primary audience are local viewers. The Northern Ghanaian films produced in local languages to reflect cultural and uniqueness of the Dagbanli language. Moreover, Mohammed (2019), notes the resilience of the Northern Ghanaian movie industry, particularly the Tamale-based Dagbanli film sector, which has continued to thrive despite limited support from the Ghanaian government and external stakeholders. She emphasises that this resilience is largely due to the industry’s reliance on indigenous knowledge systems, which have provided the foundation for its longevity (Mohammed, 2019). Thus, while the stakeholders in the Northern Ghanaian film industry bear similarities to those in the broader film industry, they are influenced by the specific cultural, economic, and political context of Northern Ghana.

Brief History of Northern Film Industry

The Northern film industry, including its historical development, is marked by a lack of literature and documentation, despite its strong connection to Northern Ghanaian culture, particularly among the Dagomba ethnic group (Mohammed, 2022). In 2016, a significant effort was made to gather information during the film festival held in Tamale. Key players in the industry, along with some of the pioneers, shared valuable insights that formed the basis of the brief historical account below (Gbambu, filed data, 2016). The genesis of the Northern film industry can be traced back to a captivating form of drama performances that emerged during the annual Maulud celebrations at Arabic Schools in late 1988. It was during this time that the Beh’sung drama group, formed by Mr. Haruna Abubakar Sadiq, with performers like the late Alhaji Rashid Bawa (a.k.a. BBC), Doo Sanda, Fulani, San Sayuti, and other talented individuals, took center stage. Their mesmerizing performances became a cherished tradition at almost all Arabic schools in Dagbang, where the birth of the Prophet Muhammad, known as Maulud, was celebrated. However, it was on the historic date of June 10, 1989, that the real turning point occurred. Mr. Haruna Abubakar Sadiq emerged as a pioneer and trailblazer, officially forming the Beh’sung drama group and venturing into uncharted territory with the production of a Dagbani film titled “Nyontaale” (Whose Fault?). This ambitious endeavor marked the dawning of a new era for artistic and cinematic expressions in the Northern region, although, unfortunately, the group eventually faced challenges and disbanded.

The film “Nyontaale” gained momentum and admiration, attracting the attention of prominent figures like the revered late Chief of Zoosali, Zosal-Lana Tia Suleman, who also served as a member of the consultative assembly of the 1992 Constitution. Additionally, Alhaji Mohammed Haroun Cambodia, the then Member of Parliament for Tamale, was among those captivated by the film’s potential. Recognizing the significance of Dagbani Drama, they took it upon themselves to champion the film’s cause, traveling all the way to Accra to garner support for this burgeoning artistic movement in the North. Their efforts were met with appreciation and encouragement, paving the way for the introduction of Dagbani drama on Ghana Broadcast Cooperation (GBC) in Accra.

Fast forward to February 12, 2003, and another momentous event marked the history of Dagbani Drama. The Northern Drama and Film Makers Association (NORDRAFIM) was officially established, signifying a unified effort to further nurture and promote the region’s creative endeavors. On February 15, that same year, the association held its inaugural General meeting, initially under the name “League of Drama Groups Association.” It was during this momentous gathering that Mr. Abdullah K. Osman, acclaimed in the industry as Fulani, suggested the name “NORDRAFIM,” aptly representing the amalgamation of creative minds from the Northern region. At its inception, NORDRAFIM boasted four distinguished drama groups: Chenti Wuni drama group, Wunzalgu drama group, Biehigu Drama group, and Zaapayim Drama group. These groups, bound by their shared passion for storytelling and performance, formed the cornerstone of the association and tirelessly worked to preserve and promote the essence of Dagbani culture through their artistic endeavors.

Over the years, NORDRAFIM’s influence has grown exponentially. From its humble beginnings with just four drama groups, the association has flourished into a vibrant community, now comprising an impressive roster of 65 drama groups and production houses. Each of these groups contributes a unique narrative and perspective, collectively enriching the cultural landscape of the Northern region and beyond. Under the visionary leadership of the association, NORDRAFIM has entered a new era of creativity and collaboration. Their dedication and passion for the arts have further solidified the foundation laid by the pioneering efforts of Mr. Haruna Abubakar Sadiq, as well as the support of the late Alhaji Rashid Bawah, Zosal Naa, and Tia Suleman. Today, NORDRAFIM serves as a beacon of hope and inspiration for aspiring artists and filmmakers throughout the Northern region. With a steadfast commitment to preserving cultural heritage, promoting local talent, and fostering a thriving artistic community, NORDRAFIM has undeniably left an indelible mark on the landscape of Dagbani drama and film. As each new production and collaboration unfolds, the association continues to reaffirm its status as a transformative force in the world of cinema and storytelling. The journey of NORDRAFIM promises to usher in even greater achievements and accolades, celebrating the beauty and diversity of Dagbani culture while leaving a lasting legacy for generations to come (Gbambu, filed data, 2016)³ 3This data was collected spanning the years 2016 to 2023. In 2016, during the commemoration of the 10th Anniversary of the Northern Drama and Film Makers Association (NORDRAFIM), conversations were conducted with notable personalities and pioneers, including the late Rashid Bawa, known as BBC. Subsequently, in 2023, interviews were carried out with Alhaji Mohammed Haroun Cambodia and Doo Sanda..

Audience and Market for Dagbang Film

The Dagbang film industry primarily caters to a local audience within northern Ghana. These films are crafted in the Dagbanli dialect, specifically targeting the residents of the region who are familiar with and understand the language. As a result, the focus of these productions remains on engaging and resonating with the local community, celebrating their culture, traditions, and shared experiences.

The decision to concentrate on a local target market has proven to be a strategic and effective approach for the Dagbang film industry. By producing films in the Dagbanli dialect, filmmakers have been successful in creating a strong connection with their audience. The use of familiar language, settings, and themes enables the viewers to relate to the characters and storylines on a deeper level, fostering a sense of cultural pride and identity. Moreover, focusing on the local market allows filmmakers to address pertinent issues and challenges specific to the region. They can tackle social, economic, and cultural topics that resonate with the daily lives of the local audience, making the films more relevant and impactful. This approach has led to the films being embraced not only as a form of entertainment but also as a medium for education, social commentary, and cultural preservation. The local target market also provides a foundation for the sustainable growth of the Dagbang film industry. As the films gain popularity and appreciation within the region, they stimulate a sense of ownership and support from the local community. This support, in turn, encourages more filmmakers, actors, and artists to join the industry, creating a vibrant ecosystem of talent and creativity. However, while the local focus has its merits, it does not limit the potential reach of Dagbang films entirely. In recent years, there has been a growing interest from audiences outside the region, both nationally and internationally. Festivals, events, and digital platforms have provided opportunities for these films to gain exposure beyond the borders of northern Ghana. As word spreads about the uniqueness and authenticity of Dagbanli cinema, more diverse audiences are becoming curious about the stories and culture depicted in these films. As a result, efforts have been made to explore subtitles and translations, making the films accessible to broader audiences without diluting their original essence. Despite the growing interest from external audiences, the commitment to preserving and celebrating the local identity remains at the core of the Dagbang film industry. Filmmakers understand that staying true to their roots is essential for maintaining the distinctiveness and cultural richness of their cinematic offerings. Looking ahead, the Dagbang film industry is poised for even greater growth and recognition. With the rising popularity of African cinema globally, there is an increasing appetite for authentic and culturally significant stories. As long as the filmmakers continue to strike a delicate balance between appealing to broader audiences and honoring their local roots, the Dagbang film industry is likely to leave a lasting impact on the world stage while continuing to be a source of pride and inspiration for the communities it serves.⁴ 4This field data was gathered on the market structure of Dagbang movies between June 5 and July 31, 2023. Given the limited availability of literature on the topic, interviews were undertaken with filmmakers, producers, distributors, and the target market audience to evaluate the characteristics of the northern film market structure across the region.

Intersection of Film, Gender, and Development

The Role of Cultural Productions in Promoting or Hindering Development Goals

Cultural productions, particularly films, are influential in both reflecting and shaping societal norms and values. Films are powerful tools for socialization and can either promote or hinder development goals by the way they portray gender roles and societal dynamics (Holtzman & Sharpe, 2014; Squires, 2014). In many societies, films serve as a mirror, reflecting existing gender norms and power dynamics. However, they also possess the potential to challenge these norms and advocate for social change (Walton-Wetzel, 2018). This duality makes them a critical focus for studies aiming to understand and influence societal development. In the context of development, cultural productions can significantly impact the progress towards achieving development goals. Films that reinforce traditional gender roles and stereotypes can perpetuate inequalities and inhibit the empowerment of marginalized groups. Conversely, films that highlight social injustices, celebrate diversity, and promote inclusive narratives can contribute to societal transformation and support development initiatives (Walton-Wetzel, 2018).

Analysis of How Film Representations Align with or Contradict the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set forth by the United Nations provide a global framework for achieving a more equitable and sustainable world by 2030. Among these goals, SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities), and SDG 16 [Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions] (Sdg, 2019) are particularly relevant when examining the role of films in promoting gender equality and social development.

SDG 5: Gender Equality

SDG 5 aims to achieve gender equality and empower women and girls by eliminating discrimination, violence, and harmful practices, and ensuring their full participation in all areas of life (UN Women, 2018). Films significantly influence gender stereotypes and equality, with many perpetuating traditional roles that depict women as passive and dependent (Smithet al., 2014). Such portrayals can impede gender equality by reinforcing unequal power dynamics and limiting the visibility of empowered female role models. For example, Northern Ghanaian films often portray women as reliant on men or liabilities, reinforcing patriarchal norms (Acquaye, 2022). Conversely, films that present women in varied roles and challenge traditional norms can support the empowerment of women and girls, aligning with SDG 5 (UNESCO, 2015).

SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities

SDG 10 aims to reduce inequality and promote inclusion across social, economic, and political spheres for all people regardless of various statuses (UN, 2019). Inclusive film representation plays a key role in addressing inequalities by fostering understanding and acceptance of diverse identities. Films that showcase the struggles and achievements of marginalized groups can enhance awareness and support social justice efforts. For instance, films that depict the challenges faced by women in Northern Ghana can help reduce societal inequalities and promote gender equality (Osei Owusu, 2022). Conversely, underrepresentation or misrepresentation of these groups in films can worsen social inequalities and impede progress towards SDG 10.

SDG 16: Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions

SDG 16 seeks to promote peaceful and inclusive societies, ensure access to justice for all, and build effective, accountable institutions (UN, 2015). Films play a significant role in advancing these goals by addressing social injustices, corruption, and human rights abuses, which can lead to a more informed and engaged public. Such films support the development of strong institutions and the rule of law, aligning with SDG 16. Conversely, films that glorify violence or portray justice systems as corrupt without offering solutions can erode public trust and impede progress toward peace and justice (Markeyet al., 2015). Northern Ghanaian films that critically address societal issues can promote dialogue and reform, contributing to the objectives of SDG 16.

Empirical Review

Several valuable contributions have been made in the related area of study by Mohammed (2019), Tuurosong (2021), Mohammed (2022), and Adongoet al. (2023), but they do not directly address the issue at hand. Mohammed (2019) explores the resilience of the Northern Ghanaian film industry, particularly the Tamale-based Dagbanli sector, attributing its longevity to the reliance on indigenous knowledge. Despite limited support from both the government and external stakeholders, the industry has thrived through the fusion of oral traditions with modern filmmaking techniques. Using a political economy of communication approach, postcolonial film theory, and indigenous knowledge systems, Mohammed highlights the industry’s efforts to globalise and engage in cross-cultural exchanges. She offers recommendations to overcome practical and theoretical challenges, emphasising the importance of indigenous knowledge in the sector’s survival and growth. However, the study does not address the representation of women in Northern Ghanaian films.

Tuurosong (2021), examines how Dagbani films contribute to peace-building and conflict resolution in the Dagbon region, Northern Ghana. Using qualitative methods and Agenda-Setting Theory, the study reveals that these films promote traditional conflict resolution, critique poor leadership, and facilitate community reconciliation. Despite limited resources, Dagbani films serve as valuable tools for peace activists. Tuurosong recommends increased funding from NGOs to boost the production of peace-focused films, while also calling for broader research and quantitative validation to assess their impact.

Mohammed (2022), provides a historical analysis of the Dagbanli film industry, focusing on indigenous language films in Northern Ghana. She identifies a research gap on indigenous language films despite extensive studies on English-language media. Using qualitative methods, including interviews with key stakeholders, she argues that the industry’s sustainability over three decades is due to innovative strategies such as independent funding and adapting to evolving technological trends. Mohammed offers practical and theoretical recommendations to improve indigenous language filmmaking and research, contributing valuable insights into the growth and resilience of the sector. However, the study does not address the representation of women in these films.

Recently, Adongoet al. (2023), explore the challenges women face in leadership roles within the patriarchal societies of Northern Ghana, particularly in education. Using a quantitative approach with social survey design and statistical analysis, the study reveals how traditional gender roles, cultural norms, and systemic biases create significant barriers for women in leadership positions. The findings emphasise the need for interventions to complement policy reforms. While the study contributes to the discourse on gender and leadership, offering region-specific recommendations for achieving gender equity, it does not address women’s representation in Northern Ghanaian films.

Despite these important contributions, none of the studies reviewed directly tackle the issue of female representation in Northern Ghanaian films, a gap that warrants further investigation.

Method

Research Design

This study employs a qualitative research design to explore the representation of women in Northern Ghanaian films. A qualitative approach was chosen because it allows for an in-depth understanding of complex social phenomena and provides rich, detailed data that capture the nuances of gender representation in film.

Study Setting

The study was conducted in the Northern Region of Ghana, specifically focusing on the Dagbang Kingdom. This region was chosen due to its unique cultural context and the significant role of film in reflecting and shaping societal norms and values.

Sampling Techniques

This study utilized purposive sampling to identify participants with substantial expertise and experience in Northern Ghanaian films. Purposive sampling, also referred to as judgmental or selective sampling, involved deliberately choosing individuals who were most likely to provide in-depth and pertinent data for the research. Patton (2015) posits that purposive sampling is widely recognized for its ability to facilitate the selection of information-rich cases that provide in-depth understanding and valuable insights into specific research topics. This approach ensured that the participants were knowledgeable and could offer meaningful insights into the portrayal of women in Northern Ghanaian cinema. The selection of participants was made with the intention of obtaining data from those who were directly involved in or had significant familiarity with the subject matter. By including a diverse range of participants, such as directors and producers, the study was able to capture multiple perspectives, thus enriching the data and providing a comprehensive understanding of women’s representation in Northern Ghanaian films.

Sample Size

The study employed purposeful sampling, as outlined by Patton (2015), to select a diverse group of 15 participants, consisting of 9 film directors and 6 film producers. These industry professionals provided rich and relevant insights into the narratives and character portrayals within Northern Ghanaian films (Table I). Their expert perspectives contributed to a nuanced understanding of women’s representation in these films, as well as the cultural and industry-specific factors shaping these portrayals.

Table I. Sample Size and Participant Description

Role	Number of participants	Description
Film directors	9	Provided insights into narratives and character portrayals.
Film producers	6	Offered external perspectives on the representation of women in films.
Total	15	Comprising a diverse group of professionals in the film industry.

Participants were identified through film industry networks, film festivals, professional associations, social media platforms, and personal contacts, ensuring diversity in age, gender, education, and socioeconomic background.

Data Collection Methods

Primary Data

Data collection was conducted through semi-structured interviews with key informants. Semi-structured interviews with film directors and producers, provided detailed insights into their perspectives on the representation of women in Northern Ghanaian films.

Selected Film Analysis

The film analysis methodology for this study was designed to provide a comprehensive examination of the portrayal of women in Northern Ghanaian cinema. The analysis focused on four representative films: Dagbando (Hussein, 2009), Asadachi (Abubakari, 2003), Gartingdam (Iddrisu, 2010), and Ziblim (Iddrisu, 2022). These films were selected based on their relevance to the study’s themes and their impact on the portrayal of gender roles.

Data Analysis

Thematic analysis was employed to analyze the qualitative data. This process included coding the data from interviews, and film reviews to identify key themes and patterns. Themes were developed to reflect various dimensions of female representation, and the findings from participant data and film reviews were integrated to provide a comprehensive understanding of how women are represented in Northern Ghanaian films.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations were addressed by obtaining informed consent from all participants, ensuring confidentiality, and allowing participants the option to withdraw from the study at any time. This methodology provided a structured approach to exploring the representation of women in Northern Ghanaian films, ensuring a thorough and ethical examination of the subject matter.

Limitations of the Study

A key limitation of this study is its focus on a specific cultural context within Northern Ghana, particularly the Dagbang community. This narrow scope may limit the generalizability of the findings to other regions or cultures within Ghana or beyond. Additionally, the reliance on qualitative methods, such as interviews and film analysis, while providing in-depth insights, may introduce subjectivity and may not capture the full diversity of perspectives within the film industry. The study’s emphasis on the filmmakers’ viewpoints may also overlook audience interpretations and broader societal impacts of these cinematic portrayals. Despite its limitations, the study provides crucial insights into how Northern Ghanaian cinema reflects and influences gender norms, offering valuable perspectives for addressing regional gender inequalities.

Results

This section delves into the analysis of data gathered from film content and interviews conducted with 15 film directors and producers. Using thematic analysis, we examine four selected Northern Ghanaian films, focusing on their portrayal of women within the Dagbang cultural context. The analysis integrates insights from both film narratives and directorial perspectives to identify recurring themes related to gender roles, stereotypes, and cultural influences. This approach aims to reveal how these cinematic portrayals reinforce or challenge traditional gender norms and contributes to the broader understanding of gender representation in Northern Ghanaian cinema.

Selected Film Analysis

In examining gender representation in Northern Ghanaian films, this section analyses how three notable works; Dagbando (Hussein, 2009), Asadachi (Abubakari, 2003), and Gartingdam (Iddrisu, 2010) reflect and shape societal attitudes toward gender roles in the Dagbang community. In Dagbando, Hussein critiques entrenched gender hierarchies, illustrating the marginalisation of women through the titular character’s refusal to educate his daughter despite his wealth. Motifs like stinginess and repeated dismissals of the value of “girl child education” highlight systemic gender biases that hinder women’s empowerment. Asadachi examines women’s dual roles as victims and agents of reconciliation. Set amidst a violent family feud, the film portrays how women bear the brunt of conflict yet emerge as catalysts for peace. A daughter’s forbidden love eventually fosters reconciliation, showcasing women’s potential to heal divided communities despite societal constraints. In Gartingdam, Iddrisu explores cultural and religious transitions, with a powerful female witch embodying resistance to Islam’s spread. Her ultimate defeat symbolises the marginalisation of influential women during societal change, reflecting broader narratives that diminish female power in the face of new ideologies. These films collectively reveal nuanced portrayals of women, highlighting their struggles, agency, and societal perceptions within the cultural context of Northern Ghanaian cinema.

Data Analysis

Interview Insights

The analysis of the data collected from the films Dagbando (Hussein, 2009), Asadachi (Abubakari, 2003), Gartingdam (Iddrisu, 2010) and Pakpang (Iddrisu, 2022), alongside insights from interviews with directors and producers, reveals that these films often mirror real-time stories and societal attitudes. The data indicates that the portrayal of women in these films predominantly reflects the traditional Dagbang societal norms, which influence how female characters are depicted and their roles within the narrative.

Real-Time Storylines and Societal Reflection

The data suggests that the storylines in these films are closely aligned with real-life scenarios, depicting societal issues and traditional values that resonate with the Dagbang community. As one director noted: (…) Our films aim to capture the essence of Dagbang traditions and societal norms. The portrayal of women is a reflection of how deeply ingrained these values are in our community (Interview with a Film Director, Tamale, 04/08/2024).

Directors’ and Producers’ Perspectives

Interviews with directors and producers further reveal a consensus that the portrayal of women as inferior or subservient is a deliberate reflection of Dagbang tradition. They argue that these portrayals are not merely artistic choices but are grounded in the cultural and societal norms of the Dagbang community. Key insights include:

Cultural Authenticity, Gender Norms and Stereotypes

Directors and producers emphasize that the depiction of women in traditional roles and the reinforcement of gender biases are intended to reflect the authentic cultural practices of the Dagbang society. As one producer stated: The depiction of women in our films is rooted in tradition. We aim to show the cultural reality, not to fabricate an idealized version of gender relations (Interview with a Film Director, Tamale, 08/08/2024). Another film director remarked: (…) In Dagbang here, women were historically undervalued and their opinions often ignored. They were expected to comply submissively, even when disagreeing. The portrayal of this in films aims to emphasize (Interview with a Film Director, Tamale, 04/08/2024).

An executive producer asserts that this phenomenon persists in contemporary society, noting: Real-life experiences often shape our storylines, reflecting societal attitudes towards women. For example, in some communities, there’s a belief that female children should focus on household duties rather than further education, pressuring girls to prioritize domestic skills over career aspirations. This attitude influences their treatment and opportunities, as observed in Tamale (Interview with an Executive Producer, Tamale, 04/08/2024).

The data indicate that in Dagbang culture, women are predominantly associated with witchcraft and are often attributed with greater spiritual powers than men. As one director explained: In our society, women are often labeled as witches due to their household roles. With men having multiple wives, rivalry among the wives can lead women to use spiritual practices to benefit their own children while impeding the progress of the children of rival wives. This practice is common in our community (Interview with an Executive Producer, Tamale, 15/08/2024).

The data indicate that women, especially those among kinsmen known as “Nabi Pugnsi,” are seen as having strong witchcraft abilities to safeguard their relatives. A producer noted that this belief is frequently validated by their primary research before scriptwriting: (...) Our film depictions of witchcraft are grounded in research, which reveals that in our society, women from royal families are believed to possess witchcraft abilities to protect their kin, including the chief. An elderly woman confirmed that these women are seen as vital protectors of their families (...) (Interview with a Producer, Tamale, 15/08/2024).

Moreover, the data indicate that film portrayals of women often reinforce traditional gender norms and stereotypes. A director noted that: (…) These stereotypes reflect societal expectations and entrenched gender norms rather than being mere artistic choices (Interview with a Film Director, Tamale, 20/08/2024).

Resistance to Change

The filmmakers acknowledge that the representation of women as inferior aligns with the entrenched traditional attitudes that resist gender equality in the Dagbang community. According to one director: (...) Our films capture societal resistance to change, highlighting the tension between tradition and progress. While male education has gained acceptance, female education remains under-supported, with families often prioritizing marriage over continued education, despite girls’ achievements (...) (Interview with a Producer, Tamale, 20/08/2024).

Another producer shared: (…) In Dagbang, tradition dictates much of how women are perceived. While we aim to tell authentic stories, we also want to show the challenges women face in overcoming these deep-rooted biases (Interview with a Producer, Tamale, 18/08/2024).

A third filmmaker emphasized: Our films serve as a mirror to society. They highlight the reality that, even today, women’s voices are often stifled under the weight of longstanding customs and beliefs (Interview with a Producer, Tamale, 20/08/2024).

Implications

The data analysis also highlights several implications as discussed below.

Reinforcement of Traditional Norms

The films reinforce traditional gender norms and societal hierarchies, perpetuating gender inequality in the Dagbang community by depicting women in subordinate roles. This portrayal reflects and reinforces existing societal attitudes, as noted by one filmmaker: (...) Our films aim to reflect the realities of our culture, where women are often viewed as secondary to men. By portraying these dynamics on screen, we highlight the ongoing challenges of gender inequality in our society (...) (Interview with a Producer, Tamale, 18/08/2024).

Limited Representation and Potential for Change

The portrayal of women as inferior and the focus on traditional values also limit the representation of women in more empowering and diverse roles. This restricted portrayal affects the broader understanding of women’s potential and contributions within the society. As one interviewee noted, “While our films reflect tradition, they also limit the ways women are portrayed and understood” (Interview with a Producer, Tamale, 15/08/2024).

The data suggest that while the films reflect traditional norms, there is potential for change. By considering filmmakers’ perspectives and exploring alternative portrayals, future productions could challenge and transform traditional gender representations: “There’s room for evolution in how we portray women. Exploring more diverse and empowering roles could contribute to societal change” (Interview with a Producer, Tamale, 20/08/2024).

These insights reveal the complex ways in which the portrayal of women in Northern Ghanaian films is shaped by a mix of cultural norms, societal attitudes, and directorial vision. These films reflect existing gender biases but also incorporate the filmmakers’ personal experiences and cultural contexts. This dynamic interplay demonstrates cinema’s role in both reflecting and influencing societal values, highlighting the importance of understanding how media representations can reinforce or challenge gender stereotypes.

Discussion

Film Analysis

Analysing the portrayal of women in Northern Ghanaian films through African Feminist Theory and Auteur Theory provides critical insights into gender representation. African Feminist Theory highlights how these films often depict women in subordinate roles constrained by traditional and patriarchal norms, as exemplified in Dagbando and Gartingdam. These portrayals reinforce gender inequalities and align with SDG 5: Gender Equality by emphasising the barriers to women’s empowerment. Asadachi presents a more nuanced narrative, showcasing women’s roles in conflict resolution and peacebuilding while also grappling with their traditional depiction as victims. This aligns with SDG 16: Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions by underscoring the significance of recognising women’s contributions to development, even within restrictive cultural frameworks.

Auteur Theory further explores how directors’ cultural contexts and personal biases shape the depiction of women in films. By either adhering to or challenging traditional norms, directors influence societal perceptions of women’s roles, reinforcing or contesting gender stereotypes. This dynamic highlights the potential of film to challenge entrenched norms and promote women’s empowerment, supporting the goals of SDG 5.

Interview Insights

Interview insights reveal that film depictions of women in Northern Ghana often reflect and reinforce traditional gender roles, limiting their involvement in development. Directors and producers admit that an emphasis on women’s traditional responsibilities can overshadow their contributions to economic and social progress. This aligns with African Feminist Theory, which critiques the reinforcement of patriarchal values through such portrayals. However, integrating real-life experiences into film narratives creates opportunities to challenge these norms and promote a more inclusive view of women’s roles, reflecting Auteur Theory’s focus on the influence of directors’ personal perspectives in shaping film content.

Directors’ and producers’ comments confirm that portrayals of women are influenced by prevailing cultural attitudes and personal biases. Their focus on traditional norms echoes African Feminist critiques of how cultural practices perpetuate gender inequalities. This resonates with SDG 5: Gender Equality, as these films often mirror and perpetuate societal inequalities. Producers also highlight that depictions are shaped by both personal experiences and societal expectations, supporting Auteur Theory’s assertion that directors’ artistic choices are informed by their cultural contexts. While traditional portrayals dominate, they also offer opportunities for critical reflection and potential transformation, aligning with SDG 16: Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions by underscoring the role of film in challenging societal norms related to gender and justice.

The findings align with and extend existing literature on gender representation in Northern Ghanaian films, showing both convergence and divergence. For instance, the analysis of selected films supports Teixeiraet al. (2021) observation that women are often depicted as subordinate, reinforcing traditional gender roles, and corroborates. Osei Owusu’s (2022) findings on the control of women’s sexuality by men. Viewer dissatisfaction noted by Burke (2015) is echoed in filmmaker interviews. However, the study diverges by exploring filmmakers’ perspectives, revealing how personal experiences, financial constraints, and commercial demands influence portrayals.

This study uniquely contributes to knowledge by exploring the reasons behind the portrayal of women in Northern Ghanaian films, particularly within the Dagbang cultural context. Unlike existing literature that primarily critiques these portrayals as negative, this study finds that filmmakers often use these depictions as a deliberate strategy to critique the treatment of women and female children in Dagbang culture. These films, therefore, serve a dual purpose: advocating for change in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) while exposing and challenging cultural attitudes that hinder development in Northern Ghana, particularly among the Dagbamba people. This nuanced understanding highlights the potential of these films to contribute positively to societal change and development.

Conclusion

This study analyses the portrayal of women in Northern Ghanaian films using African Feminist Theory and Auteur Theory, offering insights into the interplay between gender representation and societal norms. It finds that many films, such as Dagbando and Gartingdam, reinforce traditional gender roles and patriarchal values, reflecting entrenched attitudes that limit women’s agency. These portrayals align with African Feminist Theory and highlight challenges in achieving SDG 5: Gender Equality within the Dagbang cultural context. In contrast, Asadachi presents a nuanced view, showcasing women’s roles in conflict resolution and peacebuilding while still engaging with traditional stereotypes. This complexity ties to SDG 16: Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions, illustrating the dual challenges and contributions of women in these narratives.

Interviews with directors and producers reveal that personal and cultural influences shape gender representation, confirming Auteur Theory’s emphasis on the role of creators’ perspectives. While traditional norms dominate portrayals, opportunities exist for critical reflection and change. This dual role of film, as a mirror of societal norms and a catalyst for transformation, aligns with SDG 5 and SDG 16. The study highlights the importance of addressing gender representation in film to foster gender equality and societal development, particularly among the Dagbamba community in Northern Ghana.